*hana*の文法ノート
*hana*がイギリス留学中に書き留めた文法ノートです。半年間の間に、pre-intermediate, intermediate, upper-intermediate, advancedの4冊の教材を使いました。それらを日々復習のため書き溜めたものです。イギリス英語なので、若干綴りが違う部分があります。

★Punction Symbols
★Need　〜ing
★Passive
★手紙
★地名におけるtheの有無
★theを使うフレーズ、使わないフレーズ
★Reported Speech
★Quantifiers（数量詞）
★Present Perfect Passive（現在完了の受動態）
★Future（未来形）
★So or Neither
★Adverbs of frequency
★Indirect questions
★助動詞
★Polite Expressions

★Punction Symbols　　 このページのtopへ
. : full stop
, : comma
" " : inverted commas
' : brackets
... : dot dot dot
- : hyphen
_ : underscore
: : colon
; : semi-colon
! : exclamation mark
? : question mark

★Need 〜ing　　 このページのtopへ
*like passive

（例）
My trousers are dirty. →　They need cleaning.
The light bulb has gone.　→　It needs changing.
The gas bottle is empty.　→　It needs refilling.
My hair's getting long.　→　It needs cutting.
The tyre's got a puncture.　→　It needs replacing.
The blakes aren't working properly.　→　They need repairing.

（注）否定文では It doesn't need 〜ing　→　○
　　　　　　　　 It needn't 〜ing　→　×

★Passive　　 このページのtopへ
(1)主語が重要でないとき、またはわからないときに使う。
(2)formallyに話しているとき、手紙やレポートを書くときに使う。特に新聞によく出てくる。

　is　〜ing　→　is being p.p.
　was　〜ing　→　was being p.p.
　hasn't p.p.　→　hasn't been p.p.
　hadn't p.p.　→　hadn't been p.p.
　haven't been 〜ing　→　×

★手紙　　 このページのtopへ

Formal	Informal
書き言葉	話し言葉
in typescript	in manuscript
on letterhead	on ordinary paper
surname+title	firstname
短縮形なし	短縮形あり
長い単語	短い単語

Formal
　Dear sir, Dear sir and Madame　→　Your faithfully
Semi-Informal
　Dear Mrs.Kinble　→　Your sincerely
Ingormal
　Dear Kate　→　Love, Best Wishes, See you, Kind(est) regards
Initiate
　My darling Joanna　→　With all my love, Love and kisses, Hugs and kisses

★地名におけるtheの有無　　 このページのtopへ
　・theが不要なもの

大陸	Africa, Asia
国	Spain, Poland
市	Madrid, Sydney
湖	Lake como
島	Sicily, Jersey
丘	Primrose hill
山	Mt Fuji
通り	Oxford Street
道路	Camden Road

　・theが必要なもの

大洋、海	the Pacific Ocean
川	The Thames
山脈	the Alps, the Himalayas
共和国	the UK, the USA
合衆国	the Netherlands, the west Indies

★theを使うフレーズ、使わないフレーズ　　 このページのtopへ
　・theを使うフレーズ
on the left(right), in the middle
in the centre, in the north(south, east, west) on the floor, on the wall(ceiling)
on the coast, on the border
at the top(bottom), in the suburbs
in the morning(afternoon, evening)

　・theを使わないフレーズ
at home, at work, at school(university, college)
in bed, in hospital, in prison
at night, at sunset, on holiday

★Reported Speech　　 このページのtopへ

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
現在完了形	過去完了形
過去形	過去完了形
現在形	過去形
現在進行形	過去進行形
will	would

（注）過去完了、would、助動詞は変わらない。ルールは必ずしも適用されるわけではない。特にDirect Speechが依然として真実の場合、変わらないこともある。」

Direct Speech	Reported Speech
now	then
today	that day
tomorrow	the next day
this	that
here	there
ago	before
yesterday	the day before

★Quantifiers（数量詞）　　 このページのtopへ
1.every and each
　every=all of the group(usually large groups)
　each=the group seen as individuals, normally used for smaller groups
e.g. The hotel has 200 rooms. Every room has a bathroom.
　●everyはそれだけで使うことはできない。
　●eachはそれだけ及びofと一緒に使うことができる。
e.g. Each has a bathroom. / Each of the rooms

2.all
　all + a plural(uncountable noun) = general
　all + the + a plural(uncountable noun) = specific
e.g. All animals need food.
　　 All real coffee contains caffeine.
　　 All the animals in the zoo look sad.
　　 We've drunk all the coffee.

★Present Perfect Passive　　このページのtopへ
The computer has been turned on(off).
The blinds has been opened(closed).
The lamp has been turned on(off).
The drawer has been opend(closed).
The little bin has been emptied(fulled).

★未来形　　このページのtopへ
a general prediction　→　will
a plan or intention　→　be going to
a prediction with present evidence　→　be going to
an arrangement for a specific time　→　現在進行形
a spontaneous decision　→　will

e.g.
-Are you doing anything this afternoon?
-Yes, I'm going to play tennis. (intentions)

-I can't find my pen.
-Oh, I'll help you to look for it.(spontaneous decision)

-In the future I believe that people will live on Mars.(general predictions)

-Shall we go to the bench?
-No, it's going to rain this afternoon.8general predictions)
-If I see David, I'm going to invite him to dinner.(plan)

*appointment　→　official / formal
be going out with / be meeting　→　informal

★So or Neither　　このページのtopへ
肯定文に対して同意するとき　→　so
否定文に対して同意するとき　→　neither
*発音注意（イギリス英語とアメリカ英語とで違う）

-I think it's really important to keep fit. I go to an aerobics class twice a week.
-Oh really? So do I. Where's your class?

-I don't know anything about computers.
-Neither do I. I feel I should do a course or something, to learn more about them.

-He spoke so fast I didn't understand anything. How about you?
-Neither do I.Let's ask someone else.

-Excuse me, can you help me? I'm lost.
-Oh dear! So am I.I thought you could help me.

-I'm feeling really tired tonight.
-Yes, so am I.

-I'm not very hungry,actually.
-No, neither am I.

-I absolutely hate warm milk.
-So do I. It's disgusting, isn't it?

-My husband does'nt like dancing very much.
-Really?
Neither do I, I must say.

-I was really ill last night.
-That's funny! So was I.

-Actually, I wasn't here last lesson.
-No, neither was I, ungortunately.

-We went to Istanbul for our holidays last years.
-What a coincidence, so did I.

-We didn't enjoy the film much.
-No, neither did we.

-I've been to Paris.
-So have I.

-I haven't been to South America.
-Neither have I.

【類似表現】
-I'm bored.
-Me too. Let's go for a walk.
-It always takes me hours to get here on the bus. It's a nuisance.
-It's the same for me. There's so much traffic.

★Adverbs of frequency（頻度の副詞）　　このページのtopへ
100%　always
　　　usually / normally
　　　often / frequently
　　　sometimes / occasionally
　　　hardly ever
　0%　never

★Indirect questions　　このページのtopへ
wh- questionsの中で

I don't know	where	he	lives
I can't remember	what time	the bus	arrives
I'll ask	What	his name	is
I've no idea	why	she	left
I wonder	how much money	they	've got

yes-no questionsの中で
I can't decide whether / if I should buy the computer.
I'll see whether / if the parcel has arrived.

indirect questionsは主に次の動詞の後に使われる。
know,remember,decide,imagine,see,ask,'ve no idea,wonder,etc...

indirect questionsは次の表現を付け加えて、しばしば丁寧な依頼が作られる。
"Could you tell me...?" "Do you think you could tell me...?"

ex. Could you tell me whether the post office is?
　　Do you think you could tell me how much this costs?

★助動詞　　このページのtopへ
Ability　can/could/be able to/manage to

現在　He can speak four languages.
過去　He could speak French when he was 4.
　　　or He was able to speak French when he was 4. 現在完了　I haven't been able to find a new job.
未来　I'll be able to find a new job.

注）couldとwas able toは共に一般的な能力を現すがcouldの方がより一般的。しかし、couldは過去に1回しか起こらなかったことには使えない。

ex.◎　I could drive when I was 16.
　 ○　I was able to drive when I was 16.

　 ○　The fireman managed to save everyone.
　 ○　The fireman were able to save everyone.
　 ×　The fireman could save everyone.

Obligation　must/have to/need

"must"は話手からくる"obligation"を表す。
"have to"は話手の外から来る"general obligation"を表す。

ex.　I must start taking more exercise.
　　My doctor says I have to start taking more exercise.
　　In Britain you have to drive on the left.

"mustn't"は禁止を表し、"no obligation""no necessity"には"don't have to ""don't need"を使う。

ex.　You mustn't park on double yellow lines.
　　You mustn't do that - It's very dangerous.
ex.　You don't have to come if you don't want to.
　　The party is informal. You don't need to wear a suit.

注　needは助動詞にもノーマルな動詞にもなり得る。

過去　I had to find a new job.
現在完了　I've had to find a new job.
will　I'll have to find a new job.

Advice　should/ought to
If you feel ill, you should go to the doctor.
You shouldn't work so hard.
You drive much too fast. You ought to be more careful.
You ought not to carry so much cash.

Probability　may/might/could
The train may be late.
We might not survive the 21th century.

注）couldは肯定文においてのみ使うことができる。

Permission　can/could/may
Can I open the window?
Could I borrow the car this evening? *more polite
May I use your phone?

ex. Jane:　We'Re getting married.
Sam:　Congratulations!
Jane:　But you mustn't tell anyone, it's a secret.

Now, you mustn't be good while we're away, do everythig Grandma says.
（子供に対してはアイデアという概念がないため）

（工場現場で通行人に向かって）
You shouldn't be here without a hard hat.

You can't smoke in here. ←禁止されている。
You mustn't smoke in here.　←話し手が禁止している。

★Polite Expressions　　このページのtopへ
I wonder if you could help me.
I'm sorry to trouble you.
Excuse me, I'm afraid + sentence.

*Do you wantの丁寧表現
Would you lik...
Would you care to infinitive

*人に物を頼むとき
Would you mind + 〜ing / if sentence
Could I possibly + v
Could you just + v